Graphic of Beef Stocker Beef Calf at Feed Bunk Graphic

Abstruse

• Until 1990, beef cattle product in Brazil was recognized as an enterprise of depression investment, low price of product, as well as an extensive production system that used large land areas to be economically feasible.

• The state of affairs inverse for the Brazilian beef marketplace when the economy stabilized in 1994 and all sectors involved in the beefiness supply chain were able to predict their associated costs and profits.

• During the same menses, purchasing power of the Brazilian population grew, and as a consequence, consumers began to demand higher quality beefiness products.

• This new scenario in the late 1990s and early 2000s has led to more intensive beef production systems in Brazil as well every bit the need for a greater understanding of how technologies might be applied. Equally event of this evolution, in the last five years, a necessity to increment beef production has occurred.

• The quality of Brazilian beef has improved compared with beef produced fifteen years agone, just continued improvements are needed to achieve excellence in terms of large-scale production of high quality beefiness, be sustainable over a long period of time, and increment our contribution to global nutrient security.

Introduction

Brazil has a territorial area of well-nigh 8,511,965 km² (the 5th largest state in terms of expanse in the earth), a population of approximately 201 million people (GEOHIVE, 2010), and a commercial cattle herd of approximately 200 meg (USDA, 2012a). In 2012, about 31,118,000 cattle were slaughtered in Brazil (IBGE, 2013); all the same, only nearly 4.02 million animals were finished in feedlots (BEEFPOINT, 2012), which represented approximately xiii% of annual slaughters in Brazil (Figure i). Based on this fact, the Brazilian beef cattle manufacture is however predominantly based on the product of grass-fed animals, in which the Nellore breed predominates. Moreover, beef cattle production is one of the nigh important activities of Brazilian agribusiness today, generating near eight.5 1000000 related jobs and representing approximately 7% of the gross domestic production (Pereira et al., 2011). According to USDA (2012b), Brazil exports ane,394,000 tons of beef across the globe, which represents well-nigh xvi.vii% of the world's total beef exports.

Figure ane.

The number of cattle (millions) finished in feedlots from 2001 to 2012.

Effigy i.

The number of cattle (millions) finished in feedlots from 2001 to 2012.

Until 1990, beef cattle production in Brazil was recognized as an activity of low technological investment, low cost of product, as well every bit a product system that used large areas to make this kind of business economically feasible. Brazil was the get-go all-encompassing system to heighten and finish cattle exclusively on pasture. Even so, changes in Brazilian beef cattle production, based on technological, economical, ideological, and social points of view started in 1994 when a programme called "Plano Real" was implemented to stabilize the economy and command aggrandizement (Carvalho, 2007). Earlier 1994, a imitation impression of easy profits involving the buy and sale of calves, yearling bulls, and heifers did not allow significant advances in technological investments, use of intensive systems of production, or management of costs and risks associated with producing cattle (Carvalho, 2007).

Since 1997, several factors have allowed for increased beef cattle productivity considering profitability now follows this bones principle: the more expensive the country, the more than intensive the system of production, regardless of country use past livestock, crops, or both (Carvalho, 2007). By the 2000s, feedlots became a reality for the beefiness industry in Brazil, the number of cattle finished in this organization increasing exponentially as shown in Figure 1, and a consequence of investments in higher quality beef product (Pereira et al., 2011). This article describes historical facts and the changes from extensive ("traditional") to more intensive ("mod") beef cattle production systems in Brazil.

Social and Historical Betoken of View

The start tape of cattle activity in Brazil was during the colonization menstruum in the 16th century, when Bos taurus animals were brought from Portugal. Until the 19th century, beefiness production in Brazil was considered irrelevant considering cattle were used primarily for work, specially to movement sugarcane mills and sporadically to feed slaves. Nevertheless, simply when Bos indicus cattle came to Brazil in the eye of the 19th century did beef product become a type of business considering those animals were more adjusted to the oestrus and tropical climate as well as more resistant to parasites (Schlesinger, 2010). Allied to these facts, access to cities and consequently to schools for people that used to live on farms was restricted, and all knowledge most raising and management of cattle was transmitted from generation to generation, from parent to child. It is obvious that farmers at that time were non concerned well-nigh beefiness quality; they wanted to raise and stop equally many animals as possible to sell them in the market. Too, farmers did not have admission to applied science or professional assistance, and cattle, such as with human being, had to live with what nature provided. Farms were similar to small settlements, and the owner, the "male parent effigy," was i who held the "farm wisdom," knew nigh agriculture and cattle management, and applied those concepts on a small scale co-ordinate to his objectives (Schlesinger, 2010).

Based on the civilization described, and the fact that the bovine species evolved as herbivores, pastures were e'er the main source of nutrients for the Brazilian cattle herd. During the 20th century, African grasses of the genus Brachiaria were brought to Brazil, which revolutionized beef cattle product, especially in regions where the soil was poor. Brachiaria grasses adapt very well in tropical climates and practice not demand many nutrients for development. These Brachiaria grasses replaced the native grasses in many regions of Brazil, especially where the savannah biome predominates ("cerrado" upland scrub forest, feature of the Brazilian central plateau), due to its greater dry thing production per hectare. This allowed for beefiness production to become more intensive and for a greater evolution of the cattle herd in many regions in Brazil (Pereira et al., 2011).

In the 1960s, when the government realized that Brazil could be 1 of largest beef suppliers of the world in the future, many programs were created to encourage and provide financial support to spread out the Bos indicus animals and Brachiaria grasses throughout the Brazilian territory, mainly in the Midwest and N regions, which were designated at that time equally expansion zones for agronomics and livestock (Pereira et al., 2011). Later on, land prices in those regions appreciated because the expanding and disseminating of beef cattle production brought regional benefits with the evolution of cities.

Today, some feeding technologies that started to exist used on late 1960s and early 1970s are however used past beefiness producers that raise grassfed cattle, such equally mineral supplements rich in phosphorus and urea to outset nutritional deficiencies of the tropical grasses, especially during wintertime. Nevertheless, those feeding technologies used to increase beefiness production per area are not as effective as they used to exist in the past. Dutra & Alovisi (2009) estimated the approximately 80% of the cultivated pastures in Brazil are degraded. Based on this fact, Brazil remains a very traditional country in terms of beef product considering while beef cattle producers are withal using knowledge from the 1960s, crop agriculture in Brazil (cultivation of corn, soybeans, beans, cotton, and sugarcane) is considered 1 of near advanced in world. Moreover, crops are taking the place of pastures due to their greater profitability because expensive land prices require a more assisting arrangement of product. As a result, beef producers currently have 3 options in Brazil: ane) invest more resources in intensive systems, such as feedlots, on their country; ii) look for cheaper land in North and Northeast regions to go along raising cattle on pasture in a traditional way; or 3) quit the business organisation and either sell or hire the country for agricultural purposes, mostly related to crop production (Schlesinger, 2010). Therefore, feedlots have become more than popular in Brazil during the concluding decade, not only to supply consumer demand, but too due to the pressure to be more productive and efficient.

There is withal much to be washed to make beefiness production in Brazil more efficient and profitable; however, the advances in the terminal decade have positively impacted the economic system. According to the Brazilian government, beef cattle production has generated ane straight job and 3 indirect jobs in the last 10 years regardless of "traditional" or "modern" systems of product because the establishment of several packing plants in dissimilar states and the generation of co-products from slaughtered cattle (east.g., leather) have helped to reduce unemployment.

Scientific Signal of View

In Brazil, most scientific studies involving beefiness cattle have been designed and conducted without taking into consideration the multidisciplinary characteristics of beef product (from farm to plate concept); and likewise, from the socio-economic standpoint, most studies do not take into account the impacts of the complete cycle of beefiness production. This fact contributes to inconsistencies among research information, as well as the inability to determine if implementation of the latest technologies has impacted beef production and beef quality in Brazil. The quality of Brazilian beef has been profoundly improved in the final few years, but based on the fact that there is no carcass grading organization or carcass classification method adopted past Brazilian packing plants, Brazil nevertheless has a long manner to go to standardize the production of a greater volume of higher quality beefiness products. Therefore, studies that integrate basic and practical research that may atomic number 82 to improved beef production and cease-product quality are needed. When those factors are identified, beef production tin can be enhanced, and as event, the Brazilian beef manufacture will be able to improve its efficiency, as well equally the quality of beefiness products provided both domestically and internationally.

Every bit Brazil is the world's 2nd largest beef exporter (USDA, 2012a) with the largest commercial cattle herd in the globe (USDA, 2012b), Brazilian beefiness has a presence on dinner tables all over the earth; even so, this is mainly due to its lower price and not its quality. It is well documented in the literature that Bos indicus cattle present tougher beefiness and lower per centum of intramuscular fat (marbling) compared to Bos taurus animals (Wheeler et al., 2001). In addition, some countries such as Russia, Egypt, Italia, and Venezuela import beef from Brazil (ABIEC, 2012) because it presents lower percentage of fatty. Because of the tropical climate in Brazil, beef production is unique, and equally upshot, different direction models need to be investigated. In Brazil, cattle spend nigh of their life grazing tropical pastures, which oftentimes leads to the slaughter of older animals. Usually, the production cycle from birth to market averages 36 months (Oliveira et al., 2006), but when finished in a feedlot, bullocks and steers are slaughtered at an average age of 27- and thirty-months-onetime, respectively (Millen et al., 2009). Feedlot operations have been utilized, in general, to finish beef cattle to accomplish a minimum of 4 mm of backfat cover for Brazilian market place requirements; however, less than 13% of cattle slaughtered in Brazil annually are finished in feedlots (Millen et al., 2009). This 4 mm of fat cover required by Brazilian packing plants is as well to avoid problems of cold shortening during the process of chilling (Crouse et al., 1990). Based on this fact, many Brazilian researchers have been involved for more than 50 years in studies that test strategies to reduce the age at slaughter, and every bit a result, improve the quality of Brazilian beef. Some of the strategies include: i) reducing the length of the stocker phase by offering concentrate supplementation during the winter season and intensive grazing throughout the year (as forage mass production is extremely reduced during the wintertime season, animals typically lose body weight during this stage if they are not supplemented with sources of energy and protein); and 2) feeding loftier-concentrate diets to Bos indicus cattle, which has become a common practice only in the last decade. Yet, if scientific studies are non well designed and results are not properly interpreted and applied for all cycles of product, the production of higher quality beef volition not be achieved, and Brazil will continue to produce a low quality product.

Over the last 10 years, the utilize of engineering has increased in the Brazilian beef industry, and in cases that this engineering science is associated with research evolution and meliorate awarding of nutritional recommendations and direction practices, productivity indexes were enhanced, leading to a "mod" or more efficient and sustainable beef product. The advances from traditional to modern beefiness cattle product in Brazil tin can clearly exist seen in Table 1.

Table 1.

Productivity indexes by phases of "traditional" versus "modern" beef cattle product in Brazil.

Table i.

Productivity indexes by phases of "traditional" versus "modern" beefiness cattle production in Brazil.

All indexes shown in Table 1 are important for making the production of high quality beef profitable in Brazil. However, the use of all or some of those indexes will depend on the purposes of beefiness production (eastward.g., feeding calves, stocker, finishing in feedlot) led past marketplace demands, herd production status, and limitations of product systems. Therefore, if a modern beefiness product approach is well synchronized with economic oscillations, beef producers will make money and a improve beef product will be put on market shelves.

Critical factors for successful beefiness production in Brazil are related to identification of marketplace demand, market-oriented product to supply the need, and overcoming commercial barriers associated with food rubber. For instance, foot-and-mouth disease is nonetheless a sanitary trouble when the aim is to increase Brazilian beef exports. Out of 27 Brazilian states, simply 16 are considered areas free of foot-and-mouth illness, and xv of those states are gratuitous due solely to vaccination (Bahia, Tocantins, Rondônia, Acre, Espírito Santo, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Paraná, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul, São Paulo, Sergipe, and Distrito Federal). Only Santa Catarina is considered gratuitous of human foot-and-mouth illness without vaccination. In addition, in 2012, the Brazilian authorities authorized the use of β-adrenergic agonists for beef cattle, and as a outcome, some countries that import beefiness from Brazil, such as Russia, responded chop-chop and required meat from cattle that were not fed b-adrenergic agonists. The primary feed additive used by Brazilian feedlots (Millen et al., 2009) is ionophores. Since Europe banned the apply of antibiotics in beast product in 2006, Brazilian packing plants take regulated their apply, especially ionophores used every bit growth promoters, on farms certified to export beef to European countries. Therefore, equally technologies are adopted in Brazil, studies should be designed and conducted to non only increment the amount and quality of beef produced annually, only also keeping in mind that specific markets require specific products and that nutrient safety should exist a priority.

It is well known and documented that the use of intensive systems such as feedlots leads to slaughter of younger animals. As a event, in general, more than tender beef is produced with greater amounts of intramuscular fat (marbling), which are 2 of the main attributes desired by beef consumers all over the world. In the bulk of Brazilian systems of beef product, productivity indexes are not as good as in other countries that traditionally produce beef, such as the US, mainly with respect to age at beginning calving, age at slaughter, and production per land expanse (Tabular array 1). In addition, as Nellore cattle predominate the Brazilian beef product systems, the adoption of feeding high-energy diets might contribute to the comeback of Brazilian beef in terms of tenderness and marbling. The improvement of productivity indexes (Tabular array 1) for beef product in Brazil could increase the exportations, whether the international buyer is interested in cheaper and lean beefiness or in more tender and marbled beef.

Based on these factors, several studies have been conducted in the final xv years to heighten productivity indexes, such as decreasing age at slaughter, and consequently better the quality of beef produced in Brazil. Until the mid-1990s, just high-forage diets were offered to beefiness animals, which were 100% Bos indicus and harvested at older than 36 months-of-age on average. Therefore, studies to improve quality of Brazilian beef have included: 1) use of mineral supplements containing not-poly peptide nitrogen (urea) for animals on pasture during the dry flavor (wintertime) to increment dry out matter intake and avoid body weight loss; 2) feeding concentrate free energy and protein sources for animals on pasture throughout the year; 3) pasture management by adjusting stocking charge per unit and fertilizing the soil for provender product; 4) apply of feedlot operations and utilization of by-products from related agricultural industries, such as citrus pulp, whole cottonseed, soybean hulls, and sugarcane bagasse, to formulate feedlot diets; and 5) utilization of other breeds, such as Angus and Hereford, to produce crossbred animals based on Nellore cattle. Thus, the quality of Brazilian beef has been improved compared with beef produced 15 years agone, just there is still a long ways to go to achieve excellence in terms of production of high-quality beefiness on a large scale.

The Brazilian Beefiness Market

During the terminal xv years, a detached genetic improvement has been observed in the Bos indicus herd, mainly for the Nellore breed, because in the past, the priority was not to select animals on age at commencement calving or age at slaughter, and Bos indicus cattle were selected for mature weight besides as for breed characteristics. Every bit the procedure of genetic improvement is very deadening, importations of bulls, cows, besides as semen from several Bos taurus breeds were made to produce crossbred animals, and thereby accelerate the procedure for enhancing productivity indexes. All the same, strategies utilized to raise productivity indexes did not directly include factors related to carcass quality. This fact may be explained in office by the absence of a carcass grading system, every bit performed in the The states by USDA, and that the majority of beef cattle producers in Brazil are paid only based on hot carcass weight, regardless of carcass quality. In addition, until the mid-1990s, the beefiness industry requirement was an animate being heavier than 510 kg and castrated, regardless of genetic composition. In general, those animals were older than four years, and product costs and efficiency were not taken into consideration.

The state of affairs changed for the Brazilian beefiness market when the economic system was stabilized in 1994 and all sectors involved in the beef supply chain were able to plan their costs and profits in a ameliorate mode without inflation. At the aforementioned fourth dimension, purchasing power of the Brazilian population grew, and equally a consequence, consumers demanded a higher quality product. Concomitantly, beefiness production has increased, besides as exportations. This new scenario in the late 1990s and early 2000s, which involved consumer demand, led to more intensive beef production systems in Brazil. As consequence of this evolution, in the last 5 years, a existent necessity to increase beef productivity has occurred. Even so, as reported past Millen et al. (2009), more than ninety% of cattle slaughtered in Brazil every year spent their life grazing tropical grass, and the bulk of pastures are degraded, resulting in decreasing stocking rates and limiting incremental increases in productivity. Degraded pastures are ofttimes owned by pocket-size- and medium-sized farmers, which do not take the fiscal resource to invest in rejuvenation of their pastures. This is an additional reason why feedlots have become more than popular in Brazil in the last decade. The boom of feedlot operations is a continuous strong tendency. In 1991, nearly 785,000 cattle were fed in feedlots. By the finish of the 1990s, around 1,555,000 cattle were finished in feedlots, whereas in 2012, the demography reported that three,870,000 animals were fed in Brazilian feedlots, a five-fold increase in the past two decades (ANUALPEC, 2012).

Concomitantly with the greater number of intensively finished cattle, feedyards are also increasing in size. Millen et al. (2009) observed that seventy% of feedlot consultants interviewed assisted clients with less than 5,000 animals, 25.eight% consulted for clients ranging from v,000 to x,000 animals, and only 3.2% attended to feedlots with capacity over ten,000 animals. In 2010, 65.six% of the feedlot nutritionists assisted clients with less than five,000 animals, 21.9% attended to feedlots with more than than 10,000 animals, and 12.v% assisted feedlots ranging from 5,001 to 10,000 animals (Oliveira and Millen, 2011a). In addition, every bit feedlot operations are condign larger, there will be a tendency over the next few years to decrease the amount of roughage in feedlot diets. In the first survey conducted with Brazilian feedlot nutritionists, Millen et al. (2009) reported that the roughage level averaged 28.8%. In the survey conducted in 2010, Oliveira and Millen (2011a) observed a reduction of roughage level, from 28.8% in 2009 to 21.0% in 2011.

Modernization of beef product and commercialization by the Brazilian beef marketplace has involved very few farmers and large companies, which have the capital to invest and produce beef in an intensive arrangement, such as feedlots. Consequently, the sector has been divided into two distinct producers: non-capitalized farmers that produce "cattle" (no quality control or criteria adopted to improve beef quality) and large companies that produce "beef" (quality control, regularity in terms of offer standardized beefiness products, and rigid sanitation command). In full general, "cattle" producers are less efficient than "beefiness" producers, which present better productivity indexes. To opposite this trend, the utilize of genetic potential, such as Britannic breeds, associated with government investments might be a method for "cattle" producers to course modest companies of "beef" production and commercialization. In addition, packing plants should fairly remunerate or reward "beef" producers compared with "cattle" producers.

For example, nearly v years agone, certain packing plants created a reward program for those beef producers that sold cattle with more than 50% Angus in their limerick. This program stimulated other beef producers to crossbreed their Nellore cows with Angus bulls, and every bit a event, the sale of Angus semen in Brazil skyrocketed. In 2006, Angus semen contributed but 16.1% of the total semen sold in Brazil; however, in 2012, 38.6% of the total semen sold came from Angus breeds (black and red; ASBIA, 2012). For beef purposes, Nellore semen is still the nigh commercialized, which accounted for 44.half dozen% of total commercial doses in 2012 (ASBIA, 2012).

Based on these facts, crossbreeding Bos indicus cattle with Bos taurus breeds is beginning to play an important role in improving beef product in Brazil. Greater application of "industrial crosses" (Bos indicus cows bred with European or compound breeds) is now a reality in the Brazilian beefiness manufacture. According to a survey conducted by Millen et al. (2009), feedlot nutritionists reported that 46.4% of their clients had fed crossbred animals. Oliveira and Millen (2011b), in a more recent survey, observed that 55.2% of the nutritionist's clients fed crossbred animals.

Today in Brazil, it is mutual to detect feedlots owned past packing plants, with a old static capacity for more than xx,000 animals. In add-on, some of those feedlots operate basically with Britannic crossbred animals because as packing plants were not able to make farmers deliver animals in the fashion required to supply the most enervating consumers, packers decided to produce their own high quality beef. This could also exist interpreted every bit alarming data considering, dissimilar N America, about of the large feedyards (one-fourth dimension capacity over twenty,000 head) are now owned by packers.

Nonetheless, fifty-fifty the most mod systems of beef product in Brazil need more investment in technology. In a survey with 31 feedlot nutritionists conducted by Millen et al. (2009), 54.4% of the respondents reported that their clients use continuous commitment (kilograms offered per pen is non controlled) and 45.6% use programmed delivery per pen based on feed bunk scores. Likewise, vertical and horizontal mixers were used by 32.7 and 33.ix% of the clients, respectively; however, 33.four% of clients of participants used neither vertical nor horizontal mixers (the mixing is done past mitt in the feed bunk, or diet components are stratified by alternate layers of concentrate and roughage inside the delivery truck). Also, some feedlots utilize delivery trucks that exercise not accept a scale system. With respect to the labor, 63.0% of nutritionists surveyed responded that lack of trained employees is the major claiming they face up to put their nutritional recommendations into practice.

Conclusions

The economic stability in Brazil has brought many benefits to the development of systems of beef production. Information technology is obvious that beefiness production in Brazil has been changing in the last decades, and feedlots are responsible for part of that change because they play an important role in shortening the production cycle, improving beef quality, and generating jobs both direct and indirectly. Likewise, investments made to modernize feedlots, the employ of Bos taurus genetics, besides as harvesting animals at a younger historic period may contribute to the improvement of Brazilian beef, and consequently increase beef exportation.

With respect to prices paid for cattle past packing plants, it may become vital for small to midsize "beefiness" producers to grade alliances due to the fact that the major packing plants are also the largest feedlot owners. In the future, decisions related to the intensification of beef product systems should receive greater attention because utilize of technology and intensive production are the most viable fashion to make beef production sustainable and equally competitive as cereal ingather and sugarcane product in Brazil. More efficient beef production systems will increase Brazil'south contribution to global food security.

Finally, as in other developing and developed nations, life in the cities has been getting more attractive in the concluding several years for people that have lived on farms involved with livestock production, and information technology is our duty to keep those people working on farms by improving not only the systems of production, but as well the employees' working environment.

Danilo Domingues Millen has been Banana Professor at the Animal Science College of the São Paulo Country University (UNESP), Dracena campus, since 2010. His inquiry focus is feedlot cattle diet. During the past decade, this has involved evaluations of several feed additives, manipulation of rumen fermentation, protocols of accommodation for Nellore cattle, and rumen health. In 2008 and 2010, he conducted surveys with feedlot cattle nutritionists in Brazil to characterize the development of the Brazilian feedlot industry. Millen is an animate being scientist with master'due south and Ph.D. degrees in animal scientific discipline.

Mário De Beni Arrigoni has been Acquaintance Professor of the Department of Breeding and Animate being Nutrition at São Paulo State University (UNESP) since 1984. He has been involved with ruminant nutrition for the past 25 years, in particular with beef cattle, focusing his inquiry on dogie-feds, carcass ultrasound measurements, beef quality, and lately on manipulation of rumen fermentation and use of carbon isotopes in beefiness cattle studies. Arrigoni is an animal scientist with principal'southward and Ph.D. degrees in creature science.

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This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/iv.0/), which permits non-commercial reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup.com

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